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Fuel Cells

Where did fuel cells come from?

What sort of fuels can be used in a fuel cell?

Can landfill or biogas be used as a fuel for fuel cells?

What's holding back use of fuel cells?

What more should be done to spur development of fuel cells?

Hydrogen

Where does the hydrogen come from?

What about hydrogen safety?

Fuel Cell Vehicles

How would a fuel cell-powered car compare to one powered by a battery?

How efficient will a fuel cell car be, and how many miles per gallon will it get?

If all those fuel cell cars are emitting water, won't that create other problems?

Business

How can I invest in fuel cell companies?

Where can I buy a fuel cell?

What's holding back use of fuel cells?

Government

Why should the government support fuel cell development?

What is the U.S. government doing now?

What are other countries doing?

Does my state offer incentives for purchasing or installing fuel cells?

What is my state doing by way of fuel cell installations and demonstrations?

Projects and Information

How can I build my own fuel cell?

Can I use a fuel cell to power my home?

Is there a school science project I could do involving fuel cells?

Where can I find more information on fuel cells, including articles, research and market studies?

Where did fuel cells come from?

The first fuel cell was built in 1839 by Sir William Grove, a Welsh judge and gentleman scientist. Serious interest in the fuel cell as a practical generator did not begin until the 1960's, when the U.S. space program chose fuel cells over riskier nuclear power and more expensive solar energy. Fuel cells furnished power for the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and still provide electricity and water for the space shuttle. A great history of fuel cells can be found on the Smithsonian website.

What sort of fuels can be used in a fuel cell?

Fuel cells can promote energy diversity and a transition to renewable energy sources. Fuel cells run on hydrogen, the most abundant element on Earth. The great thing about fuel cells, is that they don't care where the hydrogen comes from - water, methanol, ethanol, natural gas, gasoline or diesel fuel, ammonia or sodium borohydride. Fuels containing hydrogen generally require a "fuel reformer" that extracts the hydrogen. Energy also could be supplied by biomass, wind, solar power or other renewable sources. Fuel cells today are running on many different fuels, even gas from landfills and wastewater treatment plants.

When using a fuel other than pure hydrogen, a reformer or fuel processor is required.  A reformer a device that produces hydrogen from fuels such as natural gas, gasoline, methanol, ethanol or naphtha. There are three main types of reforming: steam reforming, partial oxidation and auto-thermal reforming. Steam reformers combine fuel with steam and heat to produce hydrogen. The heat required to operate the system is obtained by burning fuel or excess hydrogen from the outlet of the fuel cell stack. Partial oxidation reformers combine fuel with oxygen to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide then reacts with steam to produce more hydrogen. Partial oxidation releases heat, which is captured and used elsewhere in the system. Auto-thermal reformers combine the fuel with both steam and oxygen so that the reaction is in heat balance. Auto-thermal reforming, while not as fully developed as the others, offers the most flexibility in heat management. In general, both methanol and gasoline can be used in any of the three reformer designs. Differences in the chemical nature of the fuels, however, can favor one design over another.

Can landfill or biogas be used to fuel a fuel cell?

The Northeast Regional Biomass Program, in conjunction with XENERGY, Inc., has completed a comprehensive study examining the feasibility of utilizing bio-based fuels with stationary fuel cell technologies. The free study can be found at http://www.nrbp.org/pdfs/pub31.pdf. The findings show that biomass-based fuel cell systems, from a technical perspective, are capable of providing a source of clean, renewable electricity over the long-term. The results of the study aren't news to some people. Fuel cells have already proven to be successful in this application, in service around the world at several landfills and wastewater treatment plants (as well as a few breweries and farms), generating power from the methane gas they produce, and reducing harmful emissions in the process.

In 1992, a successful demonstration test at the Penrose Landfill in Sun Valley, California paved the way for fuel cells operating at landfills and wastewater treatment facilities. These types of installations are now working all over the United States and in Asia. Since 1996, Connecticut's Groton Landfill has been producing 600,000 kWh of electricity a year, with a continuous net fuel cell output of 140 kW. In 1997, UTC Power (formerly IFC/ONSI) installed a fuel cell system at the Yonkers wastewater treatment plant in New York, which produces over 1.6 million kWh of electricity per year, while releasing only 72 pounds of emissions into the environment. The city of Portland, Oregon, installed a fuel cell to produce power using anaerobic digester gas from a wastewater facility. It generates 1.5 million kWh of electricity per year, reducing the treatment plant's electricity bills by $102,000 annually. The facility received a Clean Air Excellence Award from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Since then, UTC has sold several PureCell™ 200 fuel cells to California and New York, where the New York Power Authority (NYPA) has installed them at wastewater treatment plants around the city.

Another company, FuelCell Energy, Inc. (FCE) is installing its Direct FuelCell® (DFC) power plants at wastewater treatment plans around the world.

Both companies also have installed fuel cells at several breweries - Sierra Nevada, Kirin, Asahi and Sapporo - using the methane-like digester gas produced from the effluent from the brewing process to power the fuel cell.

How would a fuel cell-powered car compare to one powered by a battery?

Fuel cell automobiles are an attractive advance from battery-powered cars. They offer the advantages of battery-powered vehicles but can also be refueled quickly and could go longer between refuelings.

Fuel cells utilizing hydrogen as a fuel would be zero emission vehicles, and those using other fuels would produce near-zero emissions. They are also more efficient than "grid"-powered battery vehicles. In addition, fuel cell cars could produce fewer "system-wide" releases of greenhouse gases -- taking into account all emissions associated with resource recovery, fuel processing and use.

Studies by General Motors and Ford noted that fuel cell car engines could be built for about the same price as an internal combustion engine.

How efficient will a fuel cell car be, and how many miles per gallon will it get?

Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are achieving energy efficiencies of 40 to 50 percent in current testing and demonstrations; through extensive research and development, these numbers are improving every day. Increased energy efficiency, which holds the promise of reducing dependence on foreign oil and increasing energy security, makes FCVs a very attractive replacement for internal combustion engines (ICEs), which are between 10 to 16 percent efficient.

Exact calculations vary from study to study, but many automotive manufacturers have released data showing that FCVs are much more efficient than comparable ICE vehicles. Toyota has published research showing its conventional gasoline vehicle with a vehicle efficiency of only 16 percent, while its FCVH-4, running on hydrogen, is projected to achieve 48 percent vehicle efficiency - three times more efficient. General Motors (GM) claims that its fuel cell prototypes running on hydrogen have more than twice the efficiency of their conventional gasoline vehicles.

With vehicle emissions and fuel efficiency, it is important to look at the complete picture - from the time the fuel is first taken from the ground, produced, refined, manufactured, transported, and stored, until it actually powers a vehicle, as well as the overall safety risks of handling the fuel along the way. This approach is known as the complete fuel cycle or "well-to-wheels" analysis. A well-to-wheels analysis factors in the fuel production efficiency (well-to-tank) and the vehicle efficiency (tank-to-wheel). Looking at this complete picture offers a more thorough comparison.

Thermodynamic laws limit ICEs and all other combustion engines. Having no flame, fuel cells avoid the efficiency losses associated with the ignition, burning, heat transfer to the gases, and exhaust. Fuel cells convert the chemical energy in the fuel directly into electrical energy, which is fed into an electric motor to power the wheels of a FCV.

As gasoline enters an ICE, about 85 percent of the energy released by burning it in the engine is lost, mainly as waste heat. The remaining energy is converted to mechanical energy to rotate the engine's shafts and gears; some of this mechanical energy is lost through friction, as it passes through the transmission to the wheels. Even worse, when a car idles, the efficiency is zero. A practical way to think of your vehicle's efficiency is through your own pocketbook. Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs) have been tested with efficiencies of around 10 percent. When you drive your SUV to the gas station and fill the tank with $20.00 of gasoline, or chemical fuel, only $2.00 actually goes towards moving your vehicle. The rest, $18.00 of your money, is wasted as heat or pollution.

Battery powered electric vehicles demonstrate the importance of looking at the entire well-to-wheels picture, since no energy conversion takes place on board. Toyota has shown its pure electric vehicle having a vehicle efficiency of 80 percent, twice that of FCVs. If you take into account the well-to-tank efficiency of 26 percent and the efficiencies associated with charging the battery; the overall (well-to-wheels) efficiency becomes 21 percent - better than today's vehicles, but not as efficient as a FCV.

Even today, with alternative fuel generation and distribution in its infancy, FCVs have higher well-to-wheels efficiencies than any other type of vehicle, including ICE and battery hybrids. Three independent analyses have reached similar, but not identical conclusions. Toyota's in-house testing has published 13 percent overall, well-to-wheels, fuel cycle efficiency for its gasoline ICE vehicles. The Methanol Institute (MI) has released very similar overall numbers. MI's research shows gasoline ICE vehicles have a 15 percent overall, well-to-wheels, efficiency. Compare that to Toyota's FCHV-4 running on compressed hydrogen overall efficiency of 30+ percent (58 percent for well-to-tank and 48 percent tank-to-wheel respectively), and MI's 31 percent overall efficiency for the average hydrocarbon fuel cell vehicle (85 percent for well-to-tank and 36 percent tank-to-wheel respectively.)

GM conducted a well-to-wheels study with Argonne National Laboratory, BP, ExxonMobil and Shell. The study found that hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles are the cleanest and most efficient combination of fuel and propulsion system for the long term, offering zero vehicle tailpipe emissions, greater efficiency and lower CO2, well-to-wheels, than other vehicles. FCV prototypes also have promising long-term potential for weight, size and cost reductions to make them competitive with current ICE cars.

For a comprehensive chart that includes the specs and range of all the fuel cell cars currently in development, please visit our Charts page.

Can I use a fuel cell to power my home?

Fuel cells are ideal for power generation, either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines. Since fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise pollution as well as air pollution and the waste heat from a fuel cell can be used to provide hot water or space heating.

There are three main components in a residential fuel cell system - the hydrogen fuel reformer, the fuel cell stack and the power conditioner. Many of the prototypes being tested and demonstrated extract hydrogen from propane or natural gas. The fuel cell stack converts the hydrogen and oxygen from the air into electricity, water vapor and heat. The power conditioner then converts the electric DC current from the stack into AC current that many household appliances operate on. The initial price per unit in low volume production will be approximately $1,500 per kW. Once high volume production begins, the price is expected to drop to $1,000 per kW, with the ultimate goal of getting costs below $500 per kW. Fuel cell developers are racing to reach these cost targets.

Many companies are developing and testing fuel cells for stationary and residential applications, working together with utilities and distributors to bring them to market. Even automakers such as GM, Honda and Toyota are branching beyond vehicles and spending money on research and development for stationary applications.

Where can I buy a fuel cell?

A good place to start is FuelCellStore.com, which provides a virtual marketplace for a wide variety of fuel cells, electrolyzers and hydrogen storage products.

The following companies offer a wide range of fuel cell products, including prototype demonstration systems, low-wattage systems, beta-testing systems, and fuel cell-powered products. You will need to check with the individual companies to see if their systems/products are suited to your needs. The U.S. Fuel Cell Council has compiled a list of commercialized fuel cell products. You can also check out our Interactive map and listing of fuel cell developers or purchase our Fuel Cell Directory.

Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. - portable PEM fuel cell power systems

BCS Technology, Inc. - small PEM fuel cell systems

DAIS-Analytic Corporation - small PEM fuel cell systems

EcoSoul, Inc - small, educational regenerative fuel cell kits

ElectroChem, Inc. - small PEM fuel cell systems

Electro-Chem-Technic - educational fuel cell kits

Element 1 Power Systems, Inc. - fuel cell systems in a variety of sizes

FuelCellStore.com - wide array of fuel cell products.

FuelCell Energy, Inc. - Molten carbonate fuel cell power plants

Heliocentris Energiesysteme - educational fuel cell kits

IdaTech - fuel cell systems with up to 10 kW in generating power

Plug Power, LLC - PEM fuel cells for back up power

ReliOn - PEM fuel cells for backup and remote applications

UTC Power - 200kW PAFC power plants

Voller Energy - portable power pack, the Portapack VE100, a 100 watt combined gen-set and battery charger. Also developing the VE10, a new integrated fuel cell system.

Let us know if your company sells fuel cells and should be added to this list. Note: only sellers of fuel cell products, stacks or systems will be added to this list.

How can I invest in fuel cell companies?

Since Fuel Cells 2000 tries to be an independent voice on the subject of fuel cell technology, we do not recommend stocks of one company over another company. There are, however, places on the web where you can go for information on fuel cell companies that are publicly traded, and can track investment info on these companies. Check out our Fuel Cell Equity and Investment chart to see which companies are receiving money from investment and venture capital firms. Listing these sites is not an implicit endorsement by Fuel Cells 2000 of the information contained on the sites:

• Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Investor - follows news of fuel cell and related companies that are publicly traded
• Adams, Harkness & Hill - one of the largest independent research, brokerage, and investment banking firms serving the institutional market.
• Clean Edge - provides a variety of research and consulting services focused on clean technology. Our mission is to help companies and investors understand and profit from the clean-tech revolution and to catalyze the development of clean-tech companies and markets.
• Cleantech Venture Network - a unique opportunity for investors and others to profitably facilitate the growth of young companies with the potential for delivering major economic, environmental and social benefits. CLEANTECH organizes venture forums, provides deal flow, publishes investment reports and offers related services to investors and entrepreneurs.
• Green Money - for information on investment companies that focus on investing in companies that sell or manufacture products that are energy efficient or environmentally beneficial.
• New Alternatives Fund, Inc. - a socially responsible mutual fund emphasizing alternative energy and the environment. Areas of investment include hydrogen and fuel cells.
• Turquoise Corporate Financial Advisors - corporate finance advisory firm based in the City of London. Energy and fuel cells are specialist sectors and Turquoise provides a range of financial advisory services for fuel companies and investors.

What's holding back use of fuel cells?

Many technical and engineering challenges remain; scientists and developers are hard at work on them. The biggest problem is that fuel cells are still too expensive. One key reason is that not enough are being made to allow economies of scale. When the Model T Ford was introduced, it, too, was very expensive. Eventually, mass production made the Model T affordable.

Where does the hydrogen come from?

A fuel cell runs on hydrogen, the simplest element and most plentiful gas in the universe. Yet hydrogen is never found alone - it's always combined with other elements such as oxygen and carbon. Once it has been separated, hydrogen is the ultimate clean energy carrier, which is why it is the most attractive fuel for fuel cells. It has excellent electrochemical reactivity, it's safe to manufacture, has a high power density, has zero emissions characteristics, and can be obtained from a wide variety of sources. Hydrogen can be found in water, fossil fuels such as gasoline, methanol, natural gas, propane, as well as in ammonia and sodium borohydride.

Hydrogen made from renewable energy resources provides a clean and abundant energy source, capable of meeting most of the future's high energy needs. When hydrogen is used as an energy source in a fuel cell, the only emission that is created is water, which can then be electrolyzed to make more hydrogen – the waste product supplies more fuel. This continuous cycle of energy production has potential to replace traditional energy sources in every capacity – no more dead batteries piling up in landfills or pollution-causing, gas-guzzling combustion engines. The only drawback is that hydrogen is still more expensive than other energy sources such as coal, oil and natural gas. Researchers are helping to develop technologies to tap into this natural resource and generate hydrogen in mass quantities and cheaper prices in order to compete with the traditional energy sources. There are three main methods that scientists are researching for inexpensive hydrogen generation. All three separate the hydrogen from a 'feedstock', such as fossil fuel or water - but by very different means.

Reformers - Fuel cells generally run on hydrogen, but any hydrogen-rich material can serve as a possible fuel source. This includes fossil fuels – methanol, ethanol, natural gas, petroleum distillates, liquid propane and gasified coal. The hydrogen is produced from these materials by a process known as reforming. This is extremely useful where stored hydrogen is not available but must be used for power, for example, on a fuel cell powered vehicle. One method is endothermic steam reforming. This type of reforming combines the fuels with steam by vaporizing them together at high temperatures. Hydrogen is then separated out using membranes. One drawback of steam reforming is that is an endothermic process – meaning energy is consumed. Another type of reformer is the partial oxidation (POX) reformer. CO2 is emitted in the reforming process, which makes it not emission-free, but the emissions of NOX, SOX, Particulates, and other smog producing agents are probably more distasteful than the CO2. And fuel cells cut them to zero.

Enzymes - Another method to generate hydrogen is with bacteria and algae. The cyanobacteria, an abundant single-celled organism, produces hydrogen through its normal metabolic function,. Cyanobacteria can grow in the air or water, and contain enzymes that absorb sunlight for energy and split the molecules of water, thus producing hydrogen. Since cyanobacteria take water and synthesize it to hydrogen, the waste emitted is more water, which becomes food for the next metabolism.

Solar- and Wind- powered generation - By harnessing the renewable energy of the sun and wind, researchers are able to generate hydrogen by using power from photovoltaics (PVs), solar cells, or wind turbines to electrolyze water into hydrogen and oxygen. In this manner, hydrogen becomes an energy carrier – able to transport the power from the generation site to another location for use in a fuel cell. This would be a truly zero-emissions way of producing hydrogen for a fuel cell.

What about hydrogen safety?

Many questions have been raised regarding hydrogen's safety as an energy carrier. Hydrogen is highly flammable and requires a low hydrogen to air concentration for combustion. However, if handled properly hydrogen is as safe or safer than most fuels, and hydrogen producers and users have generated an impeccable safety record over the last half-century.

There are many myths about hydrogen, which have recently been dispelled. A study of the Hindenburg incident found that it was not the hydrogen that was the cause of the accident.

Comprehensive studies have shown that hydrogen presents less of a safety hazard than other fuels including gasoline, propane, and natural gas. In 1997, Ford Motor Company in conjunction with the Department of Energy published a "Hydrogen Vehicle Safety Report" in which it concluded, "the safety of a hydrogen [Fuel Cell Vehicle] system to be potentially better than the demonstrated safety record of gasoline or propane, and equal to or better than that of natural gas." The study cited hydrogen's higher buoyancy, higher lower flammability limit, and much higher lower detonation limit as major contributors to hydrogen's greater safety potential.

Specifically, the study compared the safety of the various fuel systems during collisions in open spaces, collisions in tunnels, and over the fuels' entire lifecycle. The study found that in an open space collision, hydrogen powered fuel cell vehicles were safer than gasoline, propane, or natural gas powered internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles because of four factors.

• Hydrogen's carbon fiber composite tanks are very resilient to rupture even upon high impact. In general, hydrogen tanks and operating systems are designed to withstand without rupture or puncture pressures 2.25 to 3.5 times their operating pressure, high-speed collisions, and direct shots from high-powered rifles and handguns.

• Hydrogen possesses a density only 7% that of air, and has a high buoyancy so that it will rise and dissipate without wind or ventilation. Natural gas' density is 55% that of air while both gasoline (3.4 to 4 times heavier) and propane (1.52 times heavier) vapors are heavier than air. Hydrogen also has a diffusion coefficient 3.8 times greater than natural gas, 6.1 times greater than propane vapor, and 12 times greater than gasoline vapor. Consequently, hydrogen gas rises and diffuses laterally much faster than natural gas, propane, or gasoline. In open spaces, hydrogen's greater dispersion rate should translate into fewer fires. Also, for hydrogen to burn downward, i.e. when the point of ignition is above the gas, the hydrogen/air mixture must be at least 9% hydrogen or higher. ("if the ignition source is above a 10% or less flammable mixture of hydrogen, then the hydrogen below the source will not be ignited."). In comparison, methane has a downward propagating lower flammability limit of 5.6% making methane more likely than hydrogen to be ignited by a source point located above the gas/air mixture.

• A fuel cell vehicle could carry approximately 60% less energy than an internal combustion vehicle because a fuel cell vehicle is more efficient. If combusted, a fuel cell vehicle's hydrogen would generate less thermal energy than the comparable amount of natural gas, propane, or gasoline for an internal combustion engine vehicle. The hydrogen gas would also burn quicker in the event of a fire because it has a burning velocity 7 times greater than natural gas or gasoline. The result could be a quick plume of fire that does not cause as much damage as a gasoline fire.

• A hydrogen powered fuel cell vehicle will possess many safety sensors and devices that will stop the flow of hydrogen through the system if a leak is detected or in the event of an impact. By sealing the tank, the safety measures will decrease the chance that a rupture in a line will cause a continuous leak that would lead to a hydrogen concentration sufficient for ignition. The vehicle design will also cut electrical power from the battery eliminating an ignition source.

In a tunnel collision, the same properties that made hydrogen safer for open-air collisions should also make hydrogen safer. Hydrogen gas will disperse quicker than other fuels, although it could create a larger initial plume of gas potentially coming into contact with more ignition sources than a natural gas plume.

If handled properly, the entire lifecycle of the hydrogen should prove to be safer than those of natural gas, propane, and gasoline. The production and transportation of hydrogen would pose fewer direct public hazards because hydrogen gas pipelines or hydrogen tanker trucks present less of a public risk than oil tank trucks (see above). Moreover, hydrogen is not toxic and will not contaminate the environment like a propane, gasoline, or even a natural gas spill could.

Hydrogen's safety record provides no evidence of an unusual safety risk. Liquid hydrogen trucks have carried on the nation's roadways an average 70 million gallons of liquid hydrogen per year without major incident. A high hydrogen gas mixture called "town gas" used to light streetlights and houses has been determined to have an equal safety rating as similarly used natural gas. Hydrogen has been handled and sent through hundreds of miles of pipelines with relative safety for the oil, chemical, and iron industries. Moreover, NASA has used liquid hydrogen as its major fuel source for the last half-century without major incident.

A great presentation on hydrogen safety can be found HERE.

You can read more about hydrogen and hydrogen safety at our Fuel Cell Library. More information on hydrogen safety is available from the National Hydrogen Association.

Can a fuel cell vehicle use other fuels besides hydrogen?

Fuel cells run on hydrogen, the most abundant element on Earth. The simplest and most efficient vehicle designs store hydrogen on board, either as compressed gas, liquid, or in metal hydride. Many automotive manufacturers have used a transition fuel in earlier models of their fuel cell vehicles, with the long-term vision of strictly hydrogen-powered vehicles.  Some have demonstrated vehicles running on methanol and sodium borohydride. The very first FCVs in demonstration are powered by hydrogen.  They are fleet vehicles that refuel at a centrally located fuel station.

For a comprehensive chart that includes the specs, range and fuel choice of all the fuel cell cars currently in development, please visit our Charts page.

If all those fuel cell cars are emitting water, won't that create other problems?

According to calculations by Jason Mark of the Union of Concerned Scientists:

Assuming all hydrogen input turns into water, and that all water is released (either as liquid or vapor), "If the entire U.S. passenger vehicle fleet were powered by hydrogen FCVs, the amount of water emitted annually (assuming no losses) would be 0.005% the rate of natural evapotranspiration (water that evaporates or is transpired by plants) in the continental U.S."

Many people are concerned about the amount of water produced by a fuel cell vehicle. They worry "where will the water go?" "Will it cause fog or ice?" and what we can do with it to make it useful. Some discussion of what we have now (the internal combustion engine) and what we will have in a few years (the fuel cell vehicle) can help to put this into perspective.

It is important to remember that gasoline engines also produce water. The hydrogen in gasoline (and the hydrogen in diesel fuel and the hydrogen in natural gas) all combine with oxygen in the flame to produce water. The production of water is one of the big reasons combustion happens since forming water releases heat that makes the reaction possible. It is not a new thing to produce water while making power and energy. Burning or chemically oxidizing any hydrogen bearing fuel produces water. The only fuel that may be an exception to this rule is pure-carbon (coal). For the sake of comparison sake we will use a C6H18 (octane) baseline for gasoline. We will base our calculations of the current situation on an internal combustion engine burning octane.

The classical hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as its fuel. Where does the hydrogen come from? Natural gas! Yes, the vast majority of hydrogen sold in the world today is made from natural gas, (natural gas is mostly methane, CH4). The conversion is done by combining the CH4 with H2O (water!) to make H2 and CO2, so the manufacturing of hydrogen actually USES water! But we will account for this by using the energy units for comparison, just to make it simpler.

So we are comparing the energy from a fuel cell using Hydrogen derived from natural gas to the energy from a gasoline engine using gasoline (octane). What is the difference? The heat of formation of water is - 69 kcal/mole and that of carbon dioxide is - 94 kcal/mole. The heat of combustion of octane in air at perfect stoichiometry with no unburned hydrocarbon is 1806 kcal/mole and the potential chemical energy contained in the same amount of methane is 370 kcal/mole. We must reduce the methane energy by 15% to account for an 85% efficient (energy basis) reformer. The reduction leaves us with 315 kcal/mole in the methane. Comparing the energy content to the hydrogen content allows us to get at the difference in water production between the two fuels.

The ratio of heat produced by chemically oxidizing each one is 1806/315 = 5.7. That means one mole of octane will produce almost six times the energy of one mole of methane (converted to hydrogen and) used in a fuel cell, and it weighs more too.

The ratio of water formed is the same as the ratio of hydrogen atoms or 18/4 = 4.5. That means the octane makes 4.5 times the amount of water as the methane does to make 5.7 times the energy. Computing a relative ratio of water production for a common unit of energy (cal or btu) gives 4.5/5.7 = 0.78. So the octane makes less water (22% less) than the methane does, on a per unit of energy basis. But energy doesn't take into account the energy conversion device (the fuel cell versus the internal combustion engine). We have to take the energy conversion efficiency into account. Fuel cells are typically 30%-40% efficient in automotive sizes.

They are even higher in efficiency in some instances running on pure hydrogen. Some automotive applications running on pure hydrogen have achieved 50% efficiency using fuel cells. Gasoline internal combustion engines are lucky to get 15%-20%. This means that for the same energy in the fuel, the fuel cell car will do twice the work, and the car will travel twice as far, or conversely that the fuel cell car will need only half the energy to do the same work (move the same miles). So divide the 5.7 in half to get 5.7/2 = 2.85 (you only need half the energy to do the same work!) and now you have the FINAL ANSWER. 4.5/2.85 = 1.6. So the internal combustion engine actually makes 1.6 times MORE water than the fuel cell for the same miles traveled in the same car with the same passenger and luggage load. On a "miles traveled" basis, the fuel cell produces LESS water than an internal combustion engine running on gasoline. This is mostly due to the much higher efficiency of the fuel cell compared to the internal combustion engine.

While it is true that the internal combustion engine will make more water, it does so at a higher temperature and this might tend to keep the water in the vapor phase longer than the low temperature fuel cell exhaust. It remains to be seen how the now fuel cell cars will fare in use, but the California Fuel Cell Partnership will certainly find out. But keep in mind that on cold days, the relative humidity is usually VERY low, even if it is snowing, so the chances of condensation on the road are reduced. In Chicago and Vancouver, when they tested the Ballard buses, they put the exhaust up at the top of the bus to help make sure the water vapor didn't cause a problem, and it didn't! It made a "plume" of water vapor on cold days, but no condensation problems at all.

Courtesy of Jeremy Snyder, Desert Research Institute

What is the U.S. government doing now?

Government support can provide lasting momentum toward developing new technologies. The U.S. government has been involved in fuel cell and hydrogen research for decades now.

Launched in 1996, the Department of Defense’s (DOD) Climate Change Fuel Cell Program provides grants of $1,000/kilowatt to purchasers of fuel cell power plants. The ‘buydown’ program has awarded more than $18.8 million toward the purchase of 94 fuel cell units. DOD also has a residential fuel cell demonstration program involving over 21 units at 12 different military locations.

In 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) formed the Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA), made up of commercial developers, universities, national laboratories, and government agencies, to develop low-cost, high power density, solid-state fuel cells for a broad range of applications.

DOE's Hydrogen Program includes participation from the Offices of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EE), Fossil Energy (FE), Nuclear Energy (NE), and Science (SC). Each office manages activities that address hydrogen technologies that meet the needs of their respective feedstocks and target applications. As the nation focuses more attention and resources on exploring the potential for a hydrogen energy future, close coordination among these offices becomes critical.

DOE's Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program, a program of the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, works with partners to accelerate the development and successful market introduction of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The website has technical information, publications and lots of resources.

The U.S. Government also owns and operates 30 fuel cell cogeneration units, the world’s largest fleet of fuel cells, in conjunction with the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center/Construction Engineering Research Laboratory testing programs.

The Department of Transportation maintains a fuel cell bus research program. The Environmental Protection Agency has a program to facilitate the use of fuel cells at landfills and wastewater treatment plants, with several fuel cells already been installed across the United States.

Why should the government support fuel cell development?

Fuel cells can provide major environmental, energy and economic benefits that advance critical national goals. Development and optimization of energy technologies has always been a partnership between government and the private sector.

Other power technologies have enjoyed considerable support in the past, including tax credits for natural gas drilling, military support for gas turbine technology, support for solar power research, nuclear power research and coal cleanup technologies, among many other programs.

Does my state offer incentives for purchasing or installing fuel cells? What is my state doing by way of fuel cell installations and demonstrations?

47 states and the District of Columbia have some sort of fuel cell or hydrogen legislation, demonstration or activism taking place today.   BTI has published State Activities That Promote Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Infrastructure Development, a comprehensive state-by-state analysis of state programs and incentives that specifically include hydrogen, fuel cells and zero emission vehicles. We have also created the searchable State Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Database which catalogues all regulations, initiatives, policy and partnerships in the fuel cell and hydrogen arena. We also include all stationary fuel cell installations, hydrogen fueling stations and vehicle demonstrations in the United States.

Updike, Kelly & Spellacy, P.C., a law firm with a Fuel Cell & Alternative practice group, distributes a free weekly newsletter featuring legal and regulatory updates on alternative energy around the United States and various international sites. They also offer a free Quarterly Report on State Fuel Cell Initiatives.

Fourteen states across the U.S. have established funds to promote renewable energy and clean energy technologies. The Clean Energy Funds Network (CEFN) is a non-profit project to provide information and technical services to these funds and to work with them to build and expand clean energy markets in the United States.

DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) has added EERE State Activities & Partnerships containing links to hundreds of state-specific Web pages published by EERE and its technology development programs, including such information as DOE grants to the states, resource maps, project databases, and contacts. Itl also includes the latest state energy news, publications, and statistics.

What are other countries doing?

The U.S. faces fierce competition from other countries. Canada, Japan and Germany are aggressively promoting fuel cell development with tax credits, low-interest loans and grants to support early purchases and drive down costs.

The International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy was established in 2003 as an international institution to accelerate the transition to a hydrogen economy. Members countries include (click on country to see links to government programs and projects, latest media, reports and roadmaps, and recent IPHE statements) Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, European Commission, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, and the United States.

Fuel Cell Today publishes worldwide and country-specific fuel cell and hydrogen market surveys on their website.

New Players in the Hydrogen Game - an article by Sandra Curtin in Earthtoys E-magazine about Iceland, Sweden and Denmark's hydrogen and fuel cell support and projects.

Other international organizations include:

European Fuel Cell Group - European trade association for the fuel cell industry.

Fuel Cell Commercialization Conference of Japan - examines specific issues affecting the commercialization and widespread use of fuel cells, and incorporates the findings into policy proposals with a view to enabling member companies to take steps to resolve the issues themselves, and having these findings reflected in government measures. Through this, the FCCJ can make an important contribution to the commercialization and widespread use of fuel cells in Japan, and to the growth of Japan's fuel cell industry.

Fuel Cell Institute of Australia - organization focusing on fuel cells within Australia.

Fuel Cells UK - established to foster the development of the UK fuel cell industry; elevate the UK industry in the international arena; and raise the profile of UK fuel cell activity.

Hydrogen & Fuel Cells Canada - mission is to accelerate Canada's world-leading hydrogen and fuel cell industry. Members include most types of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, components, systems supply and integration, fuelling systems, fuel storage, and engineering and financial services.

Japan Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Demonstration Project

U.S. Fuel Cell Council - a nonprofit trade association dedicated to fostering the commercialization of fuel cells in the United States.

World Fuel Cell Council - a non-profit association founded in 1991 to promote the most rapid commercialization of fuel cells. Members of the Council include companies involved in the development of fuel cells. Based in Germany.

What more should be done to spur development of fuel cells?

The U.S. government should take three steps to help commercialize fuel cells:

1. Major increases are needed in research and development budgets of the Departments of Energy and Transportation, and elsewhere.

2. The federal government should also take the lead to purchase early power units and vehicles.

3. The government should continue and expand the program to help "buy down" the cost of early units installed around the country.

To put costs into perspective, we pay more than $5 billion for imported oil each month. A small fraction of that amount could fully commercialize fuel cells within five years and create tens of thousands of jobs.

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: The Path Forward presents a comprehensive strategy for federal investment in fuel cell technology and fuel infrastructure. Twenty-six fuel cell companies and a leading environmental organization presented the Bush Administration, Congress and the press with this plan to accelerate the commercialization of fuel cells on September 5-6, 2002. Authored by Robert Rose, executive director of Breakthrough Technologies Institute (BTI), the report was in response to Congressional requests for direction toward large-scale commercialization of fuel cells.

The "Path Forward" report lays out a 10-year, $5.5 billion cost-shared plan designed to maximize the benefits of government-industry partnerships. The $5.5 billion is the federal government's share of the plan, comparable to past energy government investment. The fuel cell coalition estimates that industry would invest ten times that figure.

The comprehensive plan targets several program areas:

o $2,330 million for Research & Development
o $1,325 million for pilot fleets and purchases in power generation
o $675 million for tax incentives and rebates
o $950 million for infrastructure development
o $105 million to remove market barriers
o $60 million for education and outreach programs including media campaigns
o $105 million for coordinated federal management

Since the report's publication, it has gained many additional industry supporters along with an endorsement from the US Fuel Cell Council with over 115 members.

To find out what you can do as an individual, check out our Grassroots page.

How can I build my own fuel cell?

If you are interested in building your own fuel cell, there is an article from Home Power magazine that provides step-by-step instructions on how to build a fuel cell from scratch. This is an archived issue, so it costs $5.00.

The e-book Build Your Own Fuel Cells by Phillip Hurley contains complete, easy to understand illustrated instructions for building several types of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells - and, printable templates for 6 PEM fuel cell types, including convection fuel cells and oxygen-hydrogen fuel cells, in both single slice and stacks. 

Fuelcellstore.com has all of the available fuel cell kits, stacks and components to build a fuel cell.

Is there a school science project I could do involving fuel cells?

There are many resources out there focusing on fuel cells and many websites offer science projects and lesson plans for students and teachers interested in learning more about this technology. The Educational Resources page of our Career Center has a more complete list.

Dr. Martin Schmidt has written a paper that provides an excellent school science project written for all interested persons, even for those having little prior knowledge of fuel cells. You can find his paper online.

If you are interested in building your own fuel cell, there is an article from Home Power magazine that provides step-by-step instructions on how to build a fuel cell from scratch.  The issue is now archived, so it costs $5.00 to purchase.

Fuel Cell Technology: An Alternative Energy System For the Future, contains a fuel cell lesson plan for teachers, but includes experiments that students could use for a science project or report. 

Energy Quest, a program from the California Energy Commission, has a lot of great information on fuel cells, renewable energy and alternative vehicles. In the Energy & Science Projects section, there are a number of science projects and energy activities for students, K-12, including links to other science project sites. 

And as always, for the latest fuel cell news and information, our online Fuel Cell Library includes links to numerous books, articles, and market studies about the entire fuel cell industry - different fuel cell types, fuels and applications. You can also go to our Links page to access information from government agencies, fuel cell newsletters and organizations involved in renewable energy or subscribe to our free Monthly Fuel Cell Technology Updates.

 
Where can I find more information on fuel cells, including articles, research and market studies?

Our online Fuel Cell Library includes links to numerous books, articles, and market studies about the entire fuel cell industry - different fuel cell types, fuels and applications. Our Publications page has links to free fuel cell newsletters and informational brochures, as well as textbooks and books you can purchase. You can also go to our Links page to access information from government agencies, fuel cell newsletters and organizations involved in renewable energy or subscribe to our free Monthly Fuel Cell Technology Updates.