Click here
to read an article by Fuel Cells 2000 in Earthtoys on the different
types of fuel cells.
Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC) - Phosphoric
acid fuel cells are commercially available today. Hundreds of fuel
cell systems have been installed in 19 nations - in hospitals, nursing
homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants,
landfills and waste water treatment plants. PAFCs generate electricity
at more than 40% efficiency - and nearly 85% of the steam this fuel
cell produces is used for cogeneration - this compares to about
35% for the utility power grid in the United States. Phosphoric
acid fuel cells use liquid phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and
operate at about 450°F. One of the main advantages to this type
of fuel cell, besides the nearly 85% cogeneration efficiency, is
that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel. PAFCs can tolerate a CO
concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of
fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed.
Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEM) - These fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (about 175°F),
have high power density, can vary their output quickly to meet shifts
in power demand, and are suited for applications, such as in automobiles,
where quick startup is required. According to the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE), "they are the primary candidates for light-duty
vehicles, for buildings, and potentially for much smaller applications
such as replacements for rechargeable batteries." This type
of fuel cell is sensitive to fuel impurities. Cell outputs generally
range from 50 watts to 75 kW.
Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) - Molten carbonate fuel cells use an electrolyte composed of a molten
carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert matrix,
and operate at high temperatures - approximatelly 1,200ºF.
They require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to the cathode.
To date, MCFCs have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel, and simulated
coal gasification products. 10 kW to 2 MW MCFCs have been tested
on a variety of fuels and are primarily targeted to electric utility
applications.
Solid Oxide fuel cell (SOFC) - Solid
oxide fuel cells use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the
electrolyte, and operate at very high temperatures - around 1800°F.
One type of SOFC uses an array of meter-long tubes, and other variations
include a compressed disc that resembles the top of a soup can.
Tubular SOFC designs are closer to commercialization and are being
produced by several companies around the world. SOFCs are suitable
for stationary applications as well as for auxiliary power units
(APUs) used in vehicles to power electronics.
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) - Long used by
NASA on space missions, alkaline fuel cells can achieve power generating
efficiencies of up to 70 percent. They were used on the Apollo spacecraft
to provide both electricity and drinking water. Alkaline fuel cells
use potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and operate at 160°F.
However, they are very susceptible to carbon contamination, so require
pure hydrogen and oxygen.
Direct Methanol fuel cell (DMFC) - These cells are similar to the PEM cells in that they both use a
polymer membrane as the electrolyte. However, in the DMFC, the anode
catalyst itself draws the hydrogen from the liquid methanol, eliminating
the need for a fuel reformer. Efficiencies of about 40% are expected
with this type of fuel cell, which would typically operate at a
temperature between 120-190°F. This is a relatively low range,
making this fuel cell attractive for tiny to mid-sized applications,
to power cellular phones and laptops. Higher efficiencies are achieved
at higher temperatures. Companies are also working on DMFC prototypes
to be used by the military for powering electronic equipment in
the field.
Regenerative fuel cell - Regenerative fuel cells are attractive as a closed-loop form of
power generation. Water is separated into hydrogen and oxygen by a
solar-powered electrolyzer. The hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the
fuel cell which generates electricity, heat and water. The water is
then recirculated back to the solar-powered electrolyzer and the
process begins again. These types of fuel cells are currently being
researched by NASA and others worldwide.
Zinc Air fuel cell (ZAFC) - In
a typical zinc/air fuel cell, there is a gas diffusion electrode (GDE),
a zinc anode separated by electrolyte, and some form of mechanical
separators. The GDE is a permeable membrane that allows atmospheric
oxygen to pass through. After the oxygen has converted into hydroxyl
ions and water, the hydroxyl ions will travel through an electrolyte,
and reaches the zinc anode. Here, it reacts with the zinc, and forms
zinc oxide. This process creates an electrical potential; when a set of
ZAFC cells are connected, the combined electrical potential of these
cells can be used as a source of electric power. This electrochemical
process is very similar to that of a PEM fuel cell, but the refueling
is very different and shares characteristics with batteries. ZAFCs contain a zinc "fuel tank"
and a zinc refrigerator that automatically and silently regenerates the
fuel. In this closed-loop system, electricity is created as zinc and
oxygen are mixed in the presence of an electrolyte (like a PEMFC),
creating zinc oxide. Once fuel is used up, the system is connected to
the grid and the process is reversed, leaving once again pure zinc fuel
pellets. The key is that this reversing process takes only about 5
minutes to complete, so the battery recharging time hang up is not an
issue. The chief advantage zinc-air technology has over other battery
technologies is its high specific energy, which is a key factor that
determines the running duration of a battery relative to its weight.
Protonic Ceramic fuel cell (PCFC) - This new type of fuel cell is based on a ceramic
electrolyte material that exhibits high protonic conductivity at
elevated temperatures. PCFCs share the thermal and kinetic advantages
of high temperature operation at 700 degrees Celsius with molten
carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells, while exhibiting all of the
intrinsic benefits of proton conduction in PEM and phosphoric acid fuel cells. The high operating temperature is
necessary to achieve very high electrical fuel efficiency with
hydrocarbon fuels. PCFCs can operate at high temperatures and
electrochemically oxidize fossil fuels directly to the anode. This
eliminates the intermediate step of producing hydrogen through the
costly reforming process. Gaseous molecules of the hydrocarbon fuel are
absorbed on the surface of the anode in the presence of water vapor,
and hydrogen atoms are efficiently stripped off to be absorbed into the
electrolyte, with carbon dioxide as the primary reaction product.
Additionally, PCFCs have a solid electrolyte so the membrane cannot dry
out as with PEM fuel cells, or liquid can't leak out as with PAFCs.
Microbial fuel cell (MFC) - Microbial fuel cells use the catalytic reaction of microorganisms such as bacteria to convert virtually any organic material into fuel. Some common compounds include glucose, acetate, and wastewater. Enclosed in oxygen-free anodes, the organic compounds are consumed (oxidized) by the bacteria or other microbes. As part of the digestive process, electrons are pulled from the compound and conducted into a circuit with the help of an inorganic mediator. MFCs operate well in mild conditions relative to other types of fuel cells, such as 20-40 degrees Celsius, and could be capable of producing over 50% efficiency. These cells are suitable for small scale applications such as potential medical devices fueled by glucose in the blood, or larger such as water treatment plants or breweries producing organic waste that could then be used to fuel the MFCs.
Fuel Cell Developers
For a full listing of fuel cell
developers, peruse the list of developer links.
